Late Antiquity would witness a conflict between one African Kingdom and Persia that would give the Persians both headaches and competition for control of economic trade and profit in the Arabian Peninsula. Here, Husain Roussel looks at the battle between Persia and the Kingdom of Aksum.
Folio from a Tarikhnama (Book of history) by Balami. Source: Public domain, Abu Ali Bal'ami , available here.
Introduction
The Kingdom of Aksum described by contemporary Persians of the time as one of the world’s four great empires, along with the Persians, Romans, and China. The Kingdom of Aksum also known as Axum or Aksumite Empire was a regional power located in what is now the Tigray Region and present town of Aksum in the country of Ethiopia that existed in the area from the early 1st century AD until around 960 AD. The Aksumites were the first Kingdom in Sub-Saharan Africa to mint their own coinage in the year 270 AD under Aksumite King Endybis with their coins found as far away as India through maritime trade networks. The Aksumite Kingdom emerged as a regional power after it defeated their competitor the Kingdom of Kush in present day Sudan (Nubia) for sole supremacy and trade for profitable resources like gold deposits in the region around the year 350 AD. Aksum had become one of the Christian Kingdoms to emerge early in Sub-Saharan Africa before the rise of both Islamic expansion and influence in Egypt beginning with the Rashidun Caliphate where Islam had become the new religion for the majority of the population. The first Nubian King recorded to have accepted the Christian faith around the 5th Century was King Silko, King of Nobatia. The Aksumites became Christians sometime around the middle of the 4th Century AD under the Aksumite King Ezana after his conversion to Christianity. However, other lands outside of Nubia and Ethiopia not under direct control by Islam or Christian Kingdoms would witness followers of the Christian faith enduring harsh and sometimes severe treatment by leaders of other faiths namely, those residing in the client states of the Sasanian Empire of Persia. The Sasanian Persians were at this time involved in fierce rivalry and continuous wars with the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) and the Orthodox Christian faith for regional supremacy.
Rise of the Sub-Saharan Christian Kingdoms
The Kingdom of Kush had fallen to the Aksumites, however other Nubian groups formerly under control of the Kushite Kingdom and remnants of the Meroitic Kushite population began mixing with a host of new Nubian settlers forming into 3 new separate Christian Kingdoms called The Kingdom of Nobatia (400 AD - 7th Century AD), The Kingdom of Alodia (6th Century AD - 1500 AD), and the Kingdom of Makuria (5th Century - Late 15thCentury). All of these Christian Nubian Kingdoms along with the Kingdom of Aksum began to ally themselves with the Byzantine Empire to maintain a trade presence in Nubian and Ethiopian areas of influence. The Kingdoms were indeed separate and at times would go to war with each other, although their sole mission in Sub-Saharan Africa was the prevention of Islamic or Pagan inspired threats from taking over their Kingdoms. The alliance with Byzantium and other Christian Kingdoms would see a massive growth of new profits, trade networks, military alliances with the Byzantine Empire during warfare, and far reaching diplomatic relations outside of Africa. The culture exchange would also see Byzantine and Hellenistic inspired styles mixed with local styles in clothing, the introduction of Christian monasteries and new designs for architecture, building of numerous Christian churches, and Byzantine missionaries spreading the teachings of Orthodox Christianity to each Kingdom. The 3 Nubian Christian Kingdoms and Aksum would be a buffer between the influence of Islam and the spread of Orthodox Christianity on behalf of the Byzantine Empire in the Sub-Saharan region. Despite this wealth of knowledge, trade, and alliances, the Kingdom of Aksum as the most powerful at the time of the African proxy states under Byzantine influence wanted to spread their wings to more distant shores. The Aksumites were not satisfied with just controlling territory in Ethiopia and Nubian lands deciding they were powerful and bold enough to expand their trade routes and secure profits from the Saudi Arabian Peninsula. The Aksumites decided they would use the protection and liberation of persecuted Christians in Saudi Arabia to justify their invasion of new territory.
Mistreatment and Massacre of Christians in Najran
A significant population of Christian settlers and bishops lived in the South Arabian town of Najran. The community had been spreading in the region since pre Islamic times and became more numerous in the area around the 5th Century AD. They aligned themselves with the Byzantine Empire who supported them in their religious beliefs and spreading the teachings of Jesus Christ. For a time, the community lived in peace with protection from the Byzantine Emperors. Najran is possibly where early Christians were able to establish the first foundation for Christianity to set foot in the Saudi Arabian Peninsula. Judaism had also found a safe haven for sanctuary in the pre Islamic Arabian Peninsula. The Jewish Kingdom of Himyar located in the southwestern mountainous range of the Arabian Peninsula was in what is now the country of Yemen. Around the early 520s AD the Jewish King Yusuf As'ar Yath'ar (Dhū Nuwās) of the Himyarites led a campaign of persecution against the Christian community of Najran and the Christian community in his Kingdom. He ruthlessly made war on any followers of beliefs outside of the Jewish faith. The persecution involved a campaign of genocide which led to a massacre of Christians that shocked most of the Christian world that had heard about the event during this time. Procopius notes Hellesthaeaus, the king of the Aethiopians, who was a Christian and a most devoted adherent of this faith, discovered that a number of the Homeritae on the opposite mainland were oppressing the Christians there outrageously; many of these rascals were Jews. (Dewing, 2023, Book 1, Ch. 20, p. 68). The most likely reasons for the Himyarite King Dhu Nuwas to attack the Christians was to consolidate his own political power, cripple the expanding influence of the Christian faith, and more importantly to retaliate against the Byzantine Empire for their persecution of Jews. A mistake that the Kingdom of Himyar would soon regret and a spark for future war between the Sasanian Persians and Aksumites for who would finally control the region.
Aksumite Invasion and Capture of Himyar
Like a scene from the Godfather film, the Byzantine Emperor Justin I also called Justin the Thracian and founder of the famous Justinian dynasty immediately gave his blessings and permission for the Aksumites to wage a war of retribution against the Kingdom of Himyar for the unforgivable slaughter of the Christian community in Najran. This was according to the Byzantine Scholar and Historian Procopius of Caesarea (500 AD - 565 AD), a request made by the Byzantine Emperor to King Kaleb (also named Hellestheaios) of the Kingdom of Aksum to send his Aksumite Christian armies from Ethiopia to invade Himyar which resulted in an overwhelming victory for the Aksumite army in 525 AD. The Aksumites had a powerful navy and were capable of using them not only for securement of trade routes in the Red Sea and beyond but also for massive troop transports for warfare operations against their rivals. This would lead to the Kingdom of Aksum gaining total control over present day Yemen and the South Arabian Peninsula. King Kaleb gathered a large army in response to the persections of Christians, according to Procopius, he therefore collected a fleet of ships and an army and came against them, and he conquered them in battle and slew both the king and many of the Homeritae. (Dewing, 2023, Book 1, Ch. 20, p. 68). The Himyarite King Dhū Nuwās is said in legend to have committed suicide whether than accept the defeat of his army by the Aksumites. King Kaleb then placed a viceroy named Sumyafa' Ashwa al-Yazani, also named Esimiphaios to govern Himyar for the Aksumite Empire outside of Africa and receive tribute from the Aksumites who moved to the area. This would be shortlived since the viceroy was eventually overthrown by the Aksumites who refused paying tribute to King Kaleb. The viceroy was murdered by the Aksumite General Abraha who was one of the commanders sent by King Kaleb to crush Himyar and Yemeni resistance during the invasion of Himyar. He would then declare himself King Abraha of the newly formed Himyarite-Aksumite Kingdom of Yemen. King Kaleb sent around 2 separate expeditions to retake Himyar from the usurper Abraha, however both attempts failed with their commanders killed and surviving troops defecting to Abraha. Abraha was left as sole and undisputed ruler of Himyar and South Arabia with accounts of 100,000 soldiers under his authority throughout the region.
The Abyssinian King Abraha of Himyar
King Abraha ruled the Himyarite-Aksumite Kingdom with an iron fist from about 535 AD until his death sometime before 570 AD. He sent numerous expeditions allegedly with war elephants to pre Islamic Mecca with the goal of destroying pagan idols and the Kaaba Holy Shrine to build a large Orthodox Chrisitan Church on the site. He failed for unknown reasons that were attributed by later Islamic tradition to be the divine act of Allah. He instead built with the help of Byzantine guidance the Grand Cathedral of Al-Qalis Church in Sana'a, Yemen to rival the Kaaba in Mecca and continue the spread and importance of Christianity among his people. In addition to building other Christian churches in Himyar, Najran, and other locations within his sphere of control Abraha’s military campaigns continue to grow in conquests. His control of territory during his reign extended to large parts of the Arabian Peninsula, lower parts of modern day Iraq, and possibly the area of Palestine. He would not be able to have total control of these areas due to constant skirmishes and small wars with the Sasanian Persian Empire and the Lakhmid Kingdom a client state of the Sasanian Persians who fought hard to retake these conquests from Abraha. King Abraha eventually died, and had two sons that would be the successors to his Aksumite ruled Himyarite Kingdom. The first son to rule was named King Yaksum ibn Abraha, but he would die early in his reign. The second son King Masruq ibn Abraha would wage numerous wars against the Sasanian Persian Empire to retain control of his Kingdom in Yemen.
Himyar Elites Plead with Persia to Remove Aksumite Rule
The Persian Rulers of the Sasanian Empire had finally deicded around 570 AD they had enough of Aksumite dominance, aggression, and expansion in their backyard. The client states of the Sasanian Empire were pleading and begging for assistance from the Persians to lead a large scale military invasion to crush the Aksumites and drive them back to the shores of Africa. Saif ibn Dhi Yazan al-Himyari whose mother was married to King Abraha by force wanted to take the throne of Himyar for himself and seek revenge. He initially made a request to the Byzantine Emperor for support and to be recognized as the rightful King of Himyar, His request for help was denied and his next option was to seek help from the Sasanian Empire King of Kings the ruler Khosrow I, and this time help would come. The agreement came with the promise that the Kingdom of Himyar would become fully annexed to the Sasanian Empire as a vassal state once the Aksumites were driven out of the region. True to his word, Khosrow I sent the Sasanian Persian General Wahrez and his son Nawzadh with a army of around 16,000 soldiers transported by a fleet of ships that sailed around the Arabian Peninsula from the Persian Gulf port of Oballa just east of the modern day city of Basra in southern Iraq. The Persians wrecked 2 ships out of the 8 used to transport their military during the invasion but managed to capture the Bahrain islands, the portside town of Sohar in Oman, and the province of Dhofar also in Oman. However, during the invasion against stiff resistance from the Aksumite army General Wahrez’s son Nawzadh was killed during the initial fighting. General Wahrez then swore a blood vegeance against the Aksumite King for the death of his son. The next stop for the Sasanian Perisan army once they secured territory in Oman and defeated further resistance was a march to the region of Hadhramaut which covers a large portion of Yemen.
The Battle of Hadhramaut 1st Persian War
King Masruq ibn Abraha of the Himyarite- Aksumite Kingdom arrived in 570 AD to meet the Persian army with a military force of 6,000 to 10,000 men against the 16,000 commanded by the Persian General Wahrez. The Aksumites fault bravely and ferociously, but were no match for the advanced military techology that the Persians brought with them to the battlefield that the defenders were not accustomed to fighting against. For example, one deadly weapon used by the Sasanian Persian Cavalry called the Panjagan was a type of projectile weapon that could fire around five arrows at once against Aksumite enemy targets. The Persians won the battle in a decisive victory, and King Masruq ibn Abraha is said to have been personally executed by General Wahrez for the early death of his son during the beginning of the conflict. This was not the end of the conflict and the Persians then advanced toward Sanaa the Yemeni Capital and the main powerbase for the Aksumites in Yemen. General Wahrez led the seige against the city and once again the defenders were no match for the Persian offensive. The city fell and Saif ibn Dhi Yazan as promised was placed as the King of Himyar and the vassal governor for Persia in the region once controlled by the Aksumites. The Aksumites that remained now had to swear allegiance to the new ruler of the Himyarites. General Wahrez then returned to Persian with his army and a large amount of plunder from the invasion.
The Aksumite Rebellion 2nd Persian War
Saif ibn Dhi Yazan ruled as a vassal King of Himyar for the Persians for about 4 years before he was murdered during a rebellion by his Aksumite subjects. The Aksumites regained control of the Kingdom of Himyar sometime around 575 AD and briefly mangae to hold it until around 578 AD. King of Kings Khosrow I infuriated by the insurrection and death of his vassal king in Himyar sends another invasion force to Yemen with the goal of complete destruction of Aksumite resistance and total annexation of the southern Arabian Peninsula for the Sasanian Persian Empire. He once again sends his victorius commander the Sasanian Persian General Wahrez in 575 AD this time with a force of between 4,000 – 8,000 soldiers to defeat the small Aksumite resistance force which by this time had no sizable army left from the previous war. Khosrow I feared if he did not react soon the Aksumites would be able to maintain a foothold once again in Yemen and receive support and possibly a formidable military force sent from the Kingdom of Aksum in Africa. His army quickly crushed the Aksumite resistance upon their arrival and removed any further threats of future Aksumite domination in the region. The Persians decided to end Himyarite self rule by the successors of Saif ibn Yazan after his death. Khosrow I then appointed General Wahrez to be the Governor of the Yemeni terrritory after full annexation to the Sasanian Empire charged with providing security, stability, and to prevent further pro Byzantine or Aksumite influence in the region during their conflict with the Byzantine Empire during the Byzantine-Sasanian War that was fought between 572 AD - 591 AD.
Conclusion
The Persians had allowed the Aksumites to rule Yemen and the Arabian Peninsula for so long because they did not have the resources to divert a military force to attack the Aksumites while they were in constant warfare with the Byzantine Empire. The numerous wars with the Byzantine Empire for control of the Caucases, Mesopotamian regions, and access to the Silk Road were their primary concern and Yemen was not only secondary but too far away for another war while fighting the Byzantines at the same time. The Aksumites did trade with the Persians and the Persians received benefits from the trade, but they also took land away from the Persian client states. This entailed both an interdependence in mutual economic trade between the 2 powers and complex warfare for territorial control. The Persians of the Sasanian Empire under the King of Kings Khosrow I still had to show they were a powerful force to be reckoned with if they wanted to retain the loyalty of their client states and not appear that the Great Sasanian Persian Empire was both weak and unreliable to assist their subjects in times of need. The Kingdom of Aksum lost their grip and control of the Arabian Peninsula after 50 years of dominance once they were dealt a severe blow by the Persians. They would go on to rule in Africa, but their Kingdom would eventually collapse due to losing vital sea trade routes, environmental disasters, wars with other people like the nomadic Beja, internal political conflicts, and most importantly the later rise of Islamic conquests in surrounding areas crippling further economic ventures. The Sasanian Empire would suffer a similar lost and end to their Persian Empire with overwhelming military defeats and eventual conquest by Islamic forces of the Rashidun Caliphate. There would be no real winners between Aksum and the Sasanians once Islam took hold in the Middle East and North Africa. The only true winner would be the Byzantine Empire who managed to survive longer but with no more powerful client states like the kingdom of Aksum to fight their proxy wars. The Byzantines themselves would eventually end as a sovereign state in the year 1453 with a crushing defeat by Muslim forces of the Ottoman Empire.
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References
Procopius. (2023). The Persian wars (H. B. Dewing, Trans.). East India Publishing Company.
Image 1: Roussel, Husain. “Gold Coin of the Aksumite Kingdom King Ebana, 440 AD - 470 AD”, (2026) Photograph. Writer’s Private Collection.
Image 2: Roussel, Husain. Silver Dirhem of the Sasanian Empire King Peroz I, 459 AD – 484 AD”. (2026) Photograph. Writer’s Private Collection.
Illustration: Depiction of the Persian army General Wahrez killing the Aksumite King Masruq ibn Abraha with an arrow. Early 14th Century Folio from a Tarikhnama (Book of History) by Balami. (Public Domain Illustration).